Faces of the Stateless
While the problems related to statelessness may manifest themselves differently, at the root is a group of people who have been denied a legal identity.
Statelessness
Open Society Voices
Stateless in Italy: Time to Fix a Broken System
January 24, 2013 |Two ongoing cases illustrate all that is wrong with Italy's status determination procedures for identifying stateless persons and recognizing their status.
“I Am Kuwaiti.”
January 8, 2013 |Fifty years ago, when Kuwait became a country, the bidoon were cut out of the deal. They have been stateless ever since. Photographer Greg Constantine has been documenting their stories.
Nigeria and Cameroon Must Step Away from Confrontation
October 11, 2012 |The leaders of Nigeria and Cameroon need to make urgent efforts to secure a genuine resolution of tensions over the Bakassi peninsula that looks after the interests of its people.
Timeline
Despite numerous attempts to eradicate statelessness, the problem persists. This timeline shows selected efforts to resolve the problem, as well as a handful of historical examples that illustrate the enduring nature of statelessness.
1920s
1920
Following the end of World War I, the League of Nations is created to preserve peace. Throughout its existence, the League’s Court of International Justice will take up several disputes between countries relating to citizenship.
1922
The League of Nations issues Nansen passports, internationally recognized identity cards for stateless refugees, partially as a response to the Russian Revolution.
1930s
1930
The League of Nations adopts The Convention on Certain Questions Relating to the Conflict of Nationality Law which states: “it is in the general interest of the international community to secure that all its members should recognise that every person should have a nationality.”
1935
The Nuremberg Laws in Germany strip Jews of their citizenship paving the way to the Holocaust.
1940s
1945
The United Nations is created following the end of World War II.
1947
The partition between India and Pakistan leaves thousands stateless—a problem still unresolved for many to this day.
1948
The UN General Assembly adopts the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article asserts that “Everyone has a right to a nationality” and that “No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality.”
1948
Burma gains independence from the British. Successive Burmese regimes refuse to provide the Rohingya Muslim minority with full citizenship rights.
1948
Palestinians displaced as a result of the 1948 Arab-Israeli conflict constitute what is today the world’s largest refugee population (4.6m registered with UNRWA); amongst them hundreds of thousands remain stateless and vulnerable with no or limited status in their host countries.
1950s
1952–1960
British colonists recruit Nubians from Sudan to fight in an anti-colonial rebellion in Kenya. Thousands of Nubians that are left behind remain to this day in Nairobi’s slums denied citizenship.
1954
The UN adopts the Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons. The convention provides legal status for someone who is not considered a national under the laws of any state and remains the primary international instrument with the goal of regulating and improving the status of stateless people. Only 62 states have ratified the convention.
1959
Kuwait’s nationality law leaves a third of the population—mostly descendants of Bedouin tribes—without citizenship. Many remain stateless to this day.
1960s
1961
The United Nations adopts The Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness to address some of the root causes of statelessness. The convention creates a positive obligation of states to eliminate and prevent statelessness in nationality laws and practices. Like the 1954 convention, the impact of this convention is limited by the 33 states that have ratified it.
1965–66
The Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination and The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provide further guarantees on the right to nationality.
1970s
1971
When Bangladesh split from Pakistan in a civil war, hundreds of thousands of Biharis loyal to Pakistan were stranded. Pakistan has refused to accept these people, many of whom are still living in internal refugee camps, and Bangladesh does not consider them citizens.
1975
Mozambique’s 17 year civil war (1975-1992) leaves thousands of children who fled to Zimbabwe to escape the conflict stranded without access to identity documents.
1979
The United Nations adopts The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women which states that women are equal to men concerning the acquisition or retention of their nationality and the ability to confer nationality to their children.
1976–79
Between the Spanish withdrawal in 1976 and the Moroccan annexation of Western Sahara in 1979, an estimated 110,000-155,000 Sahrawis sought refuge in Algeria. Many are still stateless. This is particularly a problem for women as Algerian citizenship is derived exclusively from the father. Children of an Algerian mother and a refugee father are not eligible for Algerian citizenship.
1980s
1985
The 1985 Citizenship Act in Bhutan—which specifies that applicants for citizenship must have proficiency in the dzongkha language and have 15–20 years of residency in the country—has left more than 100,000 ethnic Nepalese in the country stateless. This is a particular problem for children as they can only qualify for automatic citizenship by birth if both parents are citizens.
1989
The United Nations adopts The Convention on the Rights of the Child which contains important articles relevant to protecting the nationality of children. Children have “the right to acquire a nationality” and states are required to ensure the implementation of citizenship rights, especially in instances where the “child would otherwise be stateless.”
1989
The Arab-dominated government stripped the citizenship of tens of thousands of black Mauritanians in the country’s south. Thousands are relocated to camps across the border in Senegal. Despite pledges from subsequent governments, thousands are still stateless. This is a particular problem for Mauritanian children born in the Senegalese camps.
1990s
1990
The African Union adopts The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child which includes important provisions on nationality.
1991–99
The break-up of Yugoslavia and the resulting Balkan wars also took a heavy toll on the Roma. Tens of thousands were evicted from their homes and fled into neighboring countries, increasing their risk of becoming stateless.
1997
The Council of Europe adopts The European Convention on Nationality which encourages states to consider using expedited naturalization procedures for stateless persons and recognized refugees.
2000s
2002
After the war that ravaged Côte d’Ivoire it is estimated that nearly twenty percent of country’s 18 million inhabitants have documentation problems.
2005
The Inter-American Court of Human Rights rules that the Dominican Republic must extend full citizenship to all Dominicans of Haitian descent. The country continues to ignore this ruling.
2006
The United Arab Emirates moves to naturalize 10,000 individuals—mainly from Zanzibar—who had been stateless for over three decades.
Today
Globally 15 million people are stateless